Hamilton VS. Jefferson Essay Example for Free

Hamilton VS. Jefferson Essay Both Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson have different views about the future of America, but they both and intensions to better America by 1794. Hamilton believed in the government getting stronger with the rise of large corporations that can help provided jobs. Jefferson wanted to weaken the central government, and empower the states governments. Which view was more realistic and created a more secure system? With the Hamilton and Jefferson conflict, this helped raise political parties to decide what is good for the United States of America. Each view needed the other to create a government that would be strong enough to protect itself from its people and from external strife. During the reconstruction era, both Jefferson and Hamilton had different vision and outcomes for the future of our people. Hamilton believes in a strong central government, believed that the common people often acted foolishly and most of all wanted to balance the economy by establishing a national bank. He wanted to see the rise of strong and large corporations and businesses flourish through the success of American’s trade, financing, and agriculture. Hamilton’s saw the future of America as, bringing corporations up and increasing manufactures and trade, can help maintain internal taxes and help pay off war debt. In the article, Wealth and Success, â€Å"Hamilton’s Argues for the Constitutionality of the National Bank, he explains why the Bank of the United States is helpful for America. ‘Concerning the constitutionality of the bill for establishing a national bank, proceeds, according to the order of the president, to submit the reasons which have induced him to entertain and different opinion’ (Wealth and Success).† This eventually helped us understand more on how running a nations country and Hamilton favored giving government aid for trade, finance and manufacturing which was just like the British system. By trying to strengthen the union Hamilton increased the number of federal employees and then treated individual liberties and rights, such as freedom of speech, as being restricted to some. Thinking about more power in the government creates the people to go against him. Jefferson protested Hamilton’s proposal and made it seem unconstitutional. Thomas Jefferson known as the third president of the United States wrote and signed the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson had deep faith in common people and was given power from the U.S. constitution and planed the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson wanted more for the people and favored a weak central government and wanted more individual state power. Individual liberties must be protected by laws and didn’t support giving the government aid, like Hamilton did. While Hamilton created a New York life and was impulsive and wanted the best for himself and never listened to the people. Jefferson was less passionate about the competition between governments and wanted to eliminate internal taxes and pay off all the national debt. He believes that people should not depend on their government and a citizenry dependent on the government couldn’t become independent. Having a democratic government reduced the number of federal employees and helped distribute special privileges to the common people. Through out these different perspectives that Jefferson and Hamilton both shared, America went through hell getting things back on track. Hamilton had showed and helped noticed that Americans have been in debt for industrial development and wished to repay off debt. But this is only able to happen if you have faith and courage for the common people to help do so. He never gave the citizens a chance and created a strong government to take over. Jefferson realized that people were still being controlled when America is a free country by the government and Jefferson stood back to support the states rights. Everyone is known to be treated equally and have his or her own equal rights. Liberty and happiness comes from each individual man and among men the government is functioned through the happiness of men. Reference: http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7_brief/content/multimedia/ch07/research_01c.htm http://www.studentoffortune.com/question/91067/Visions-of-Alexander-Hamilton-and-Thomas-Jefferson http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7_brief/content/multimedia/ch07/research_01.htm

Environmental Impact of Ship Breaking Industry

Environmental Impact of Ship Breaking Industry Introduction: We are going to look into Ship breaking industry around the world and its impact on the environment, health and safety, social values and human rights issues. Ship breaking is the course of dismantling an archaic vessels structure for scrapping or recycle, mean to be conducted at a pier or dry dock to dismantling ship, it includes various activities, from removing all gears, parts and equipment to cutting down the ships substructure. Ship breaking is a difficult course of action due to the structural complication of ships. There are thousands of people involved in this industry. So many issues come up during breaking ships which remains beyond our knowledge. We are trying to demonstrate these serious issues and overcome these problems. Increasing demand of raw materials for re-rolling mills and other purposes and negative impacts on coastal environments, ship breaking activities present both challenges and opportunities for coastal zone management in a holistic manner. These activities are example of both the potentialities and the dangers of an increasingly globalised economy. It has achieved a good fame for being profitable but it cost huge environmental damage. A variety of disposable materials and refuse are being discharged from scrapped ships are often mixed with the beach soil and sea water which in turn has a negative impact on our coastal environment and biodiversity. However, accidents are normal phenomena in the ship breaking yards. Over the years more than 1000 workers have lost their lives and were seriously injured. Due to unconsciousness and lack of government patronization, the activities are facing several internal and e xternal problems. Considering all these facts, a distinct and well-balanced policy is necessary for sustainable ship breaking activities. Aims Objectives: There are some aims and objectives have been set to conducting this research: Aims †¢ Solve the serious issues †¢ Set proper guidelines †¢ Make awareness of the workers †¢ Keep the child workers away †¢ Awareness of the government †¢ Finding pros/cons Objectives †¢ Finding the problems †¢ Co-operate with the local authority †¢ Training for the workers †¢ Education for all †¢ Collecting data and analyze them †¢ Implement the outcomes of the research Environmental pollution: According to the report of Jim Puckett (International Conference on the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, 2009), the Beaching Method whereby ships are run grounded on ocean beaches for cutting and breaking apart in the intertidal zone can never be achieved in a manner which is environmentally noise or shielding of human health. Careful analyses of the intrinsic characteristics of beaching operations are conclusive that no amount of prescriptive improvements or protections can remedy the four fatal characteristics of intertidal beaching operations: * there is the impossibility of containing pollutants on a tidal beach where hulls of ships are often breached accidentally or by cutting, or toxic paints erode or are abraded sending persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals and oils onto the beach and into the seawater; * due to a shifting and soft wet tidal sand surface, there is the impossibility of rapidly bringing emergency response equipment, including fire-fighting equipment and vehicles, ambulances and cranes alongside the ship, to assist or remove persons hurt inside the hull; * the impossibility of allowing cranes to work alongside to lift heavy cut sections of a ship and thereby preventing heavy cut sections from being subject to gravity, shifting or falling directly into workers or into the marine environment; and * There is the absolute incompatibility of conducting hazardous waste management operations (which is what they are as long as ships contain hazardous wastes) in the ecologically delicate and vital coastal zone. Puckett revealed that these fatal flaws of the beaching method inevitably will result in causing avoidable death and pollution and thus make a mockery of the application of Regulation 19 of this Convention. No amount of band-aid guidelines and criteria can cure the malignancy inherent in beaching operations. To ask Parties to prevent adverse effects to human health and the environment from massive toxic ships on an intertidal beach already makes the fulfilment of this objective impossible. However the worst outcome is that by not drawing a clear line at the outset, this fatally flawed method will be legitimized, millions of dollars will be thrown into trying to mitigate the inherently inappropriate and dangerous working platform and the IMO will have succeeded in perpetuating death and pollution for many years to come. Hazardous activities: Ship breaking activities are being condemned as the whole process entails a series of risky tasks and as a depot of hazardous substances, which pose threats to the ambient environment and working people. Depending on their size and function, scrapped ships have an unloaded weight of between 5,000 and 40,000 tonnes (an average of 13000+), 95% of which is steel, coated with between 10 and 100 tonnes of paint containing lead, cadmium, organ tins, arsenic, zinc and chromium. Ships also contain a wide range of other hazardous wastes, sealants containing PCBs; up to 7.5 tonnes of various types of asbestos; several thousand litres of oil (engine oil, bilge oil, hydraulic and lubricant oils and grease). Tankers additionally hold up to 1,000 cubic meters of residual oil. Most of these materials are defined as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. In Asia old Ships containing these materials are being cut up by hand, on open beaches, under inhumane working conditions. Experts are unanimo us in their opinion that ship breaking is a high-risk industry. Paul J. Bailey criticized in his ILO discussion papers (2000) that By any standards, the demolition of ships is a dirty and dangerous occupation. The ship breaking hazards generally fall into two categories: intoxication by dangerous substances and risk of accidents on the plots. Violations of Human and labour rights: Be short of professional health and safety standard, personal or limited of training protection equipment provided. †¢ Limited or no access to emergency services, compensation when a worker is injured or killed on the job, and treatment. †¢ Less than bare minimum wages. †¢ Child labour uses. †¢ Wide range of working hours without right to overtime, annual leaves or sick. †¢ Short of job security: there is no pay where no work. †¢ No right to form or join or any trade union. In the most of the shipyards, workforces are being privileged of their human rights. They work under dangerous situation however they have no right of entry to job security, a take-home pay or safety kit. OHS, accidents and diseases: Over the last twenty years more than 400 workers have been killed and 6000 seriously injured according to the Bangladeshi media. These are the ones that have been reported. The explosion of the Iranian tanker TT Dena on 31st May 2000 alone is said to have caused 50 deaths. To this toll, the thousands of cases of irreversible diseases which have occurred and will continue to occur due to the toxic materials that are handled and inhaled without any precautions or protective gear need to be considered. On average, one worker dies in the yards a week and everyday a worker is injured (End of Life Ships: the Human Cost of Breaking Ships). It seems like nobody really cares: ship breaking workers are easily replaceable to the yard owners: if one is lost they know another 10 is waiting to replace him due to the lack of work. The Government collects the taxes and turns a blind eye. Workers are not aware of hazards to which they are exposed. The overwhelming majority of workers wear no protecti ve gear and many of them work barefoot. There is hardly any testing system for the use of cranes, lifting machinery or a motorized pulley. The yards re-use ropes and chains recovered from the broken ships without testing and examining their strength. There is no marking system of loading capacity of the chains of cranes and other lifting machineries. Consequently, workers suffer from lung problems which cause temporary loss of working capacity. The hatches and pockets of vessel may contain explosive or inflammable gases. The cutters, if they understand from experience, drill small holes in order to release gases or fumes. This still however, often cause severe explosions. Gas cutters and their helpers, cut steel plates almost around the clock without eye protection. This leaves their eyes vulnerable to effects of welding. They do not wear a uniform and most dont have access to gloves and boots. Those that are unskilled carry truck able pieces of iron sheets on their shoulders and th ere are no weight limits to the sheets they carry. Usually, these workers carry weights far above the limit prescribed in the Factories Act and Factories Rules. The beaches are strewn with chemicals and toxic substances, small pieces of pointed and sharp iron splinters causing injuries. Workers enter into the areas without wearing or using any protective equipment. Occupational health and safety is clearly not a priority for the owners and as for the workers their desperate need to find employment to support their families means that their livelihoods take precedence over their lives. Treatment and compensation: When there is an injury some immediate treatment may be given but there is no long term treatment for those who have a long term or permanent injury. In terms of compensation, only a nominal amount of compensation given and often only when there is public pressure. When a worker becomes disabled by a major accident, he gets a maximum of 10 to 15 thousand taka (1 USD=71 taka) and forced back to his home district. In most cases a worker will only get transportation costs to go back to their home district. When a worker killed in an accident, the contractor, who is responsible for the workers, will only pay the costs of sending the body back to the victims family and arranging for their burial. In the case of local workers from the area, if they die on the job, their family receives more than 50,000 taka as compensation. This is mainly due to the fact that the yard owners and contractors cannot avoid the locals who yield some power and pressure them. Prior to 2006, the labour laws in Ba ngladesh had a lot of limitations. The Workers Compensation Act 1965, only 30,000 taka was proposed for a 100% disable worker and 21,000 taka for dead workers family. The recently passed Labour Law Act 2006 now stipulates that a 100% disabled worker will receive 100,000 taka and a deceased workers family will receive xxx taka. Child labour: In Bangladesh, most poor families are more or less dependent on the childrens income for survival. The Bangladesh Shishu Adhikar Forum (BASF) has identified 430 risky jobs. Within these 67 professions are classified as very much risky and 11 are classified as dangerous. Ship breaking is falls in the latter. YPSAs baseline survey in 2003, 10.94% of the labour force is made up with children (age up to 18). Most of 5the children come from the northern regions of Bangladesh. It was noticed that ship breaking contractors prefer to recruit children as they are less expensive than their adult counterparts. The children work mainly as gas cutters assistants and move small iron pieces from one place to another. They either work in the yard from sunrise to sunset or do the night shift. On average they receive 50-60 BDT a day for their efforts. There are no educational or recreational facilities. Conclusion: Nobody seems to really care about the workers and their families. Neither the ship owners, nor the exporting countries, the ship breakers or the local governments. They are simply numbers that can be replaced. There is an urgent need to interconnect the reality on the ground, the dominating economic interests of the shipping industry and the discussions taking place at the international level, in order to change the working and environmental conditions on the yards. References: Akther, M. et al, YPSA (2005). Workers in Shipbreaking industry: a base line survey of Chittagong (Bangladesh), chapter 4, pp. 29-36. Bailey, P. J. (2000). Is there a decent way to break up ships? Sectoral activities programme discussion paper, International Labour Organization (ILO). Retrieved at 03:00 (GMT) Aug 22, 2009, from http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/papers/shpbreak/index.htm Dr. Hossain, Md. M. M. Islam, M. M. (2006). Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards Sustainable Management, Young Power in Social Action (YPSA). pp 13-17 Vardar, E. et al, Greenpeace-FIDH (2005), End of life ships: the human cost of breaking ships, Human rights report, Puckett, J. (2009). The NGO platform on Ship breaking on the Beaching Method, Presented at the International Conference on the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships.

Analysis of C Language and Operators

Analysis of C Language and Operators Introduction In order to perform different kinds of operations, C uses different kinds of operators. An operator indicates an operation to be performed on data that yields a value. Using various operators in C one link the variables and constants. An operand is a data item on which operators perform the operations. C is rich in the use of different operators. C provides four classes of operators. They are 1) Arithmetic 2) Relational 3) Logical 4) Bitwise. Apart from these basic operators, C also supports additional operators. 3.1 Types of operators Type of Operator Symbolic Representation Arithmetic operators + , -, *, / and % Relational operators >,=. Logical operators , II and ! Increment and decrement operator ++ and Assignment operator = Bitwise operators ,I,, », «and Comma operator , Conditional operator ? : 3.2 PRIORITY OF OPERATORS AND THEIR CLUBBING Various relational operators have different priorities or precedence. If an arithmetic expression contains more operators then the execution will be performed according to their priorities. The precedence is set for different operators in C. List of operators with priority wise (hierarchical) are shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 List of operators with priority wise Operators Operation Clubbing Priority ( ) [ ] -> . Function call Array expression or square bracket Structure Operator Structure Operator Left to right 1st + ++ ! ~ * Sizeof type Unary plus Unary minus Increment Decrement Not operator Ones complement Pointer Operator Address operator Size of an object Type cast Right to Left 2nd * / % Multiplication Division Modular division Left to Right 3rd + Addition Subtraction Left to Right 4th >> Left shift Right Shift Left to Right 5th > >= Less than Less than or equal to Greater than Greater than or equal to Left to Right 6th == != Equality Inequality Left to Right 7th Bitwise AND Left to Right 8th ^ Bitwise XOR Left to Right 9th | Bitwise OR Left to Right 10th Logical AND Left to Right 11th || Logical OR Left to Right 12th ? : Conditional operator Right to Left 13th =,*=,-=, =,+=,^=, |=,>= Assignment operator Right to Left 14th , Comma operator Left to Right 15th 1) When two operators of the same priority are found in the expression, precedence is given to the extreme left operator. Example Example Example 3.3 COMMA AND CONDITIONAL OPERATOR 1) Comma operator (,) The comma operator is used to separate two or more expressions. The comma operator has the lowest priority among all the operators. It is not essential to enclose the expressions with comma operators within the parenthesis. For example the statements given below are valid. Example 2) Conditional operator (?) The conditional operator contains a condition followed by two statements or values. If the condition is true the first statement is executed otherwise the second statement. The conditional operator (?) and (:) are sometimes called ternary operators because they take three arguments. The syntax of conditional operator is as given below. Syntax Condition? (expression1): (expression2); Two expressions are separated by a colon. If the condition is true expression1 gets evaluated otherwise expression 2. The condition is always written before? Mark. Example Example 3.4 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS There are two types of arithmetic operators. They are 1) Binary Operator and 2) Unary Operator a) Binary operator Table 3.3 shows different arithmetic operators that are used in C. These operators are commonly used in most of the computer languages. These arithmetic operators are used for numerical calculations between the two constant values. They are also called as Binary Arithmetic Operators. The examples are also shown in the Table 3.3 In the program variables are declared instead of constants. Table 3.3 Arithmetic operators Arithmetic Operators Operator Explanation Examples + Addition 2+2=4 Subtraction 5-3=2 * Multiplication 2*5=10 / Division 10/2=5 % Modular Division 11%3=2 (Remainder 2) b) Unary Operators Unary operators are increment operator (++), decrement (- -) and minus (-) . These operators and their descriptions are given in the Table 3.4. Table 3.4 Unary arithmetic operators Operator Description or Action Minus ++ Increment Decrement Address Operator Size of Gives the size of variable a) Minus (-) Unary minus is used to indicate or change the algebraic sign of a value. b) Increment (++) Decrement () Operators The C compilers produce very fast efficient object codes for increment and decrement operations. This code is better than generated by using the equivalent assignment statement. So, increment and decrement operators should be used whenever possible. †¢ The operator ++ adds one to its operand. Whereas the operator subtracts one from its operand. For justification x=x+1 can be written as x++; and x=x-1; can be written as x;. Both these operators may either follow or precede the operand. That is, x=x+ 1; can be represented as x++; 01 ++x; If ++ or are used as a suffix to the variables name then the post increased / decreased operations take place. Consider an example for understanding ++ operator as a suffix to the variable. x=20; y=10; z=x*y++; In the above equation the current value of y is used for the product. The result is 200, which is assigned to z. After multiplication, the value of y is increased by one. If â€Å"++ or -â€Å"are used as a prefix to the variable name then pre increment/ decrement operations take place. Consider an example for understanding ++ operator as a prefix to the variable. x=20; y=10; z=x*++y; In the above equation the value of y is increased and then used for multiplication. The result is 220, which is assigned to z. The following programs can be executed for verification of increment and decrement operations. Example 3.4 Example 3.5 c) Size of 0 and Operator The size of ( ) operator gives the bytes occupied by a variable. The number of bytes occupied varies from variable to variable depending upon its dab types. The operator prints address of the variable in the memory. The example given below illustrates the use of both the operators. Example 3.6 3.5 RELATIONAL OPERATORS These operators are used to distinguish between two values depending on their relations. These operators provide the relationship between the two expressions. If the relation is true then it returns a value 1 otherwise 0 for false relation. The relational operators together with their descriptions, example and return value are described in Table 3.5. Table 3.5 Relational Operator Operators Description or Action Example Return Value > Greater than 5>4 1 >= Greater than equal to 11>=5 1 = = Equal to 2==3 0 ! = Not equal to 3!=3 0 The relational operators symbols are easy to understand. They are self-explanatory. However readers benefit a program is illustrated below. Example 3.7 Example 3.8 Example 3.9 Example 3.10 3.6 LOGICAL OPERATORS The logical relationship between the two expressions are checked with logical operators. Using these operators two expressions can be joined. After checking the conditions it provides logical true (1) or false (0) status. The operands could be constants, variables, and expressions. The Table 3.6 describes the three logical operators together with examples and their return values. Table 3.6 Logical Operators Operator Description or Action Example Return Value Logical AND 5>3 5 || Logical OR 8>5 || 8 ! Logical NOT 8 ! = 8 0 From the above table following rules can be followed for logical operators. 1) The logical AND ( ) operator provides true result when both expressions are true otherwise 0. 2) The logical OR (I I) operator provides true result when one of the expressions is true otherwise 0. 3) The logical NOT operator (!) provides 0 if the condition is true otherwise 1. Example 3.11 Example 3.12 Example 3.13 Example 3.14 Example 3.15 Example 3.16 3.7 BITWISE OPERATORS C supports a set of bitwise operators as listed in the Table 3.7. C supports six bit operators. These operators can operate only on integer operands such as int, char, short, long int etc. Table 3.7 Bitwise operators Operator Meaning >> Right shift ^ Bitwise xor (Exclusive OR) ~ Ones complement Bitwise AND | Bitwise OR Example 3.17 Example 3.18 Example 3.19 Example 3.20 Example 3.21 SUMMARY You have now studied the various operators such as arithmetic, logical and relational which are essential to write and execute programs. The precedence of the operators in the arithmetic operations furnished in the form of a table. The conditional comma operators and programs on them, also described in this chapter. You are made aware of the logical operators OR, AND and NOT. Full descriptions on bit wise operators have been illustrated. Numerous Simple examples have been provided to the users to understand the various operators. The reader is expected to write more programs on this chapter. EXCERSICES Answer the following questions. 1. Explain different types of operators available in C? 2. What are the uses of comma (,) and conditional (?) operators? 3. What are Unary operators and their uses? 4. Describe logical operators with their return values? 5. Distinguish between logical and bitwise operators. 6. What are the relational operators? 7. What is the difference between = and = = ‘? 8. What are the symbols used for a) OR b) AND c) XOR d) NOT operations? 9. Explain the precedence of operators in arithmetic operations? 10. List the operators from higher priority to least priority? 11. What is the difference between %f and %g? 12. What is the difference between division and modular division operations? 13. What are the ASCII codes? List the codes for digits 1 to 9, A to Z and a to z. We have already seen that individual constants, variables, array elements and function references joined together by various operators to form expressions. We have also mentioned that C includes a number of operators which fall into several different categories. In this chapter we examine certain of categories in detail. Specifically, we will see how arithmetic operators, unary operators, relational and logical operators, assignment operators and the conditional operator are used to form expressions. The data items that operators act upon are called operands. Some operators require two operands, while others act upon only one operand. Most operators allow the individual operands to be expressions. A few operator permit only single variables as operands (more about this later). 3.1 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS There are five arithmetic operators in C. They are Operator Purpose + addition subtraction * multiplication / division % remainder after integer division The %operator is sometimes referred to as the modulus operator. There is no exponentiation operator in C. However, there is a library function (pow) to carry out exponentiation (see Sec.3.6). The operands acted upon by arithmetic operators must represent numeric values. Thus, the operands can be integer quantities, floating-point quantities or characters (remember -that character constants represent integer values, as determined by the computers character set). The remainder operator (%) requires that both operands be integers and the second operand be nonzero. Similarly, the division operator (I) requires that the second operand be nonzero. Division of one integer quantity by another is referred to as integer division. This operation always results in a truncated quotient (i.e., the decimal portion of the quotient will be dropped). On the other hand if a division operation is carried out with two floating-point numbers, or with one floating-point number and one integer, the result will be a floating-point quotient. EXAMPLE 3.1 EXAMPLE 3.2 EXAMPLE 3.3 Operands that differ in type may undergo type conversion before the expression takes on its final value. In general, the final result will be expressed in the highest precision possible, consistent with the data types of the operands. The following rules apply when neither / operand is unsigned. 1. If both operands are floating-point types whose precisions differ (e.g., a float and a double), the lower precision operand will be converted to the precision of the other operand, and the result will be expressed in this higher precision. Thus, an operation between a float and a double will result in a double; a float and a long double will result in a long double; and a double and a long double will result in a long double. (Note: In some versions of C, all operands of type float are automatically converted to double.) 2. If one operand is a floating-point type (e.g., float, double or long double) and the other is a char or an int (including short int or long int), the char or int will be converted to the floating-point type and the result will be expressed as such. Hence, an operation between an int and a double will result in a double. 3. If neither operand is a floating-point type but one is a long int, the other will be converted to long int and the result will be long into Thus, an operation between a long int and an int will result in a long int. 4. If neither operand is a floating-point type or a long int, then both operands will be converted to int (if necessary) and the result will be into Thus, an operation between a short int and an int will result in an int. A detailed summary of these rules is given in Appendix D. Conversions involving unsigned operands are also explained in Appendix D. EXAMPLE 3.4 EXAMPLE 3.5 EXAMPLE 3.6 EXAMPLE 3.7 EXAMPLE 3.8 EXAMPLE 3.9 3.2 UNARY OPERATORS C includes a class of operators that act upon a single operand to produce a new value. Such operators are known as unary operators. Unary operators usually precede their single operands, though some unary operators are written after their operands. Perhaps the most common unary operation is unary minus, where a numerical constant, variable or expression is preceded by a minus sign. (Some programming languages allow a minus sign to be included as a part of a numeric constant. In C, however, all numeric constants are positive. Thus, a negative number is actually an expression, consisting of the unary minus operator, followed by a positive numeric constant.) Note that the unary minus operation is distinctly different from the arithmetic operator which denotes subtraction (-). The subtraction operator requires two separate-operands. 3.3 RELATIONALAND LOGICAL OPERATORS There are four relational operators in C. They are Operator Meaning > greater than >= greater than or equal to These operators all fall within the same precedence group, which is lower than the arithmetic and unary operators. The associatively of these operators is left to right. Closely associated with the relational operators are the following two equality operators. Operator Meaning == equal to != not equal to The equality operators fall into a separate precedence group, beneath the relational operators. These operators also have a left-to-right associatively. These six operators are used to form logical expressions, which represent conditions that are either true or false. The resulting expressions will be of type integer, since true is represented by the integer value 1 and false is represented by the value 0. EXAMPLE 3.15 EXAMPLE 3.16 EXAMPLE 3.17 EXAMPLE 3.18 EXAMPLE 3.19 EXAMPLE 3.20 3.4 ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS There are several different assignment operators in C. All of them are used to form assignment .expressions which assign the value of an expression to an identifier. The most commonly used assignment operator is = Assignment expressions that make use of this operator are written in the form identifier = expression where identifier generally represents a variable, and expression represents a constant, a variable or a more complex expression. EXAMPLE 3.21 Remember that the assignment operator = and the equality operator == are distinctly different. The assignment operator is used to assign a value to an identifier, whereas the equality operator is used to determine if two expressions have the same value. These operators cannot be used in place of one another. Beginning programmers often incorrectly use the assignment operator when they want to test for equality. This results in a logical error that is usually difficult to detect. Assignment expressions are often referred to as assignment statements, since they are usually written as complete statements. However, assignment expressions can also be written as expressions that are included within other statements (more about this in later chapters). If the two operands in an assignment expression are of different data types, then the value of the expression on the right (i.e., the right-hand operand) will automatically be converted to the type of the identifier on the left. The entire assignment expression will then be of this same data type. Under some circumstances this automatic type conversion can result in an alteration of the data being assigned. For example: A floating-point value may be truncated if assigned to an integer identifier. A double-precision value may be rounded if assigned to a floating-point (single-precision) identifier. An integer quantity may be altered if assigned to a shorter integer identifier or to a character identifier (some high-order bits may be lost). Moreover the value of a character constant assigned to a numeric-type identifier will be dependent upon the particular character set in use. This may result in inconsistencies from one version of C to another. The careless use of type conversions is a frequent source of error among beginning programmers. EXAMPLE 3.22 EXAMPLE 3.23 EXAMPLE 3.24 EXAMPLE 3.25 THE CONDITIONAL OPERATOR Simple conditional operations can be carried out with the conditional operator (? :). An expression that makes use of the conditional operator is called a conditional expression. Such an expression can be written in place of the more traditional if -else statement, which is discussed in Chap.6. A condition expression is written in the form expression 1 ? expression 2 : expression 3 When evaluating a conditional expression, expression 1 is evaluated first. If expression 1 is true (i.e., if, its value is nonzero), then expression 2 is evaluated and this becomes the value of the conditional expression. However, if expression 1 is false (i.e., if its value is zero),then expression 3 is evaluated and this becomes the value of the conditional expression. Note that only one of the embedded expressions (either expression 2 or expression 3) is evaluated when determining the value of a conditional expression. EXAMPLE 3.26 EXAMPLE 3.27 EXAMPLE 3.28 EXAMPLE 3.29 LIBRARY FUNCTIONS The C language is accompanied by a number of library functions that carry out various commonly used operations or calculations. These library functions are not a part of the language per se, though all implementations of the language include them. Some functions return a data item to their access point; others indicate whether a condition is true or false by returning a 1 or a 0, respectively; still others carry out specific operations on data items but do not return anything. Features which tend to be computer-dependent are generally written as library functions. For example, there are library functions that carry out standard input/output operations (e.g., read and write characters, read and write numbers, open and close files, test for end of file, etc.), functions that perform operations on characters (e.g., convert from lower- to uppercase, test to see if a character is uppercase, etc.), and function that perform operations on strings (e.g., copy a string, compare strings, concatenate strings, etc.), and functions that carry out various mathematical calculations (e.g., evaluate trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions, compute absolute values, square roots, etc.). Other kinds of library functions are also available. Library functions that are functionally similar are usually grouped together as (compiled) object programs in separate library files. These library files are supplied as a part of each C compiler. All C compilers contain similar groups of library functions, though they lack precise standardization. Thus there may be some variation in the library functions that are available in different versions of the language. A typical set of library functions will include a fairly large number of functions that are common to most C compilers such as those shown in Table 3-2 below. Within this table, the column labeled type refers to the data type of the quantity that is returned by the function. The void entry shown for function srand indicates that nothing is returned by this function. A more extensive list, which includes all of the library functions that appear in the programming examples presented in this book, is shown in Appendix H. For complete list, see the programmers reference manual that accompanies your particular version of C. A library function is accessed simply by writing the function name, followed by a list of arguments that represent information being passed to the function. The arguments must be enclosed in parentheses and separated by commas. The arguments can be constants, variable names, or more complex expressions. The parentheses must be present, even if there are no arguments. A function that returns a data item can appear anywhere within an expression, in place of a constant or an identifier(i.e., in place of a variable or an array element). A function that carries out operations on data items but does not return anything can be accessed simply by writing the function name, since this type of function reference constitutes an expression statement. Table 3-2 Some Commonly Used Library Functions Function Type Purpose abs(i) Int Return the absolute value of i. ceil(d) double Round up to the next integer value (the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to d). cos(d) double Return the cosine of d. cosh (d) double Return the hyperbolic cosine of d. exp (d) double Raise e to the power d (e =2.7182818. .. is the base of the natural (Naperian) system of logarithms). fabs (d) double Return the absolute value of d. floor (d) double Round down to the next integer value (the largest integer that does not exceed d). fmod (d1,d2) double Return the remainder (i.e., the noninteger part of the quotient) of d1/d2, with same sign as d1. getchar () int Enter a character from the standard input device. log (d) double Return the natural logarithm of d. pow (d1,d2) double Return d1 raised to the d2 power. printf(†¦) int Send data items to the standard output device (arguments are complicated see Chap. 4). pitcher  © int Send a character to the standard output device rand ( ) int Return a random positiv e integer. sin (d) double Return the sine of d. sqrt (d) double Return the square root of d. srand (u) void Initialize the random number generator. scanf(†¦) int Enter data items from the standard input device (arguments are complicated see Chap. 4). tan (d) double Return the tangent of d. toascii  © int Convert value of argument to ASCII. tolower  © int Convert letter to lowercase toupper  © int Convert letter to uppercase. Note: Type refers to the data type of the quantity that is returned by the function. c denotes a character-type argument i denotes an integer argument d denotes a double-precision argument u denotes an unsigned integer argument EXAMPLE 3.30 EXAMPLE 3.31 Review Questions 1. What is an expression? What are its components? 2. What is an operator? Describe several different types of operators that are included in C. 3. What is an operand? What is the relationship between operators and operands? 4. Describe the five arithmetic operators in C. Summarize the rules associated with their use. 5. Summarize the rules that apply to expressions whose operands are of different types. 6. How can the value of an expression be converted to a different data type? What is this called? 7. What is meant by operator precedence? What are the relative precedence’s of the arithmetic operators? 8. What is meant by associativity? What is the associativity of the arithmetic operators? 9. When should parentheses be included within an expression? When should the use of parentheses be avoided. 10. In what order are the operations carried out within an expression that contains nested parentheses? 11. What are unary operators? How many operands are associated with a unary op erator? 12. Describe the six unary operators discussed in this chapter. What is the purpose of each? 13. Describe two different ways to utilize the increment and decrement operators. How do the two method differ? 14. What is the relative precedence of the unary operators compared with the arithmetic operators? What is their associativity? 15. How can the number of bytes allocated to each data type be determined for a particular C compiler? 16. Describe the four relational operators included in C. With what type of operands can they be used? What type of expression is obtained? 17. Describe the two equality operators included in C. How do they differ from the relational operators? 18. Describe the two logical operators included in C. What is the purpose of each? With what type of operands can they be used? What type of expression is obtained? 19. What are the relative precedence’s of the relational, equality and logical operators with respect to one another and with respect to the arithmetic and unary operators? What are their associativities? 20. Describe the logical not (logical negation) operator. What is its purpose? Within which precedence group is it included? How many operands does it require? What is its associativity? 21. Describe the six assignment operators discussed in this chapter. What is the purpose of each? 22. How is the type of an assignment expression determined when the two operands are of different data types? In what sense is this situation sometimes a source of programming errors? 23. How can multiple assignments be written in C? In what order will the assignments be carried out? 24. What is the precedence of assignment operators relative to other operators? What is their associativity? 25. Describe the use of the conditional operator to form conditional expressions. How is a conditional expression evaluated? 26. How is the type of a conditional expression determined when its operands differ in type? 27. How can the conditional op erator be combined with the assignment operator to form an if -else type statement? 28. What is the precedence of the conditional operator relative to the other operators described in this chapter? What is its associativity? 29. Describe, in general terms, the kinds of operations and calculations that are carried out by the C library functions. 30. Are the library functions actually a part of the C language? Explain. 31. How are the library functions usually packaged within a C compiler? 32. How are library functions accessed? How is information passed to a library function from the access point? 33. What are arguments? How are arguments written? How is a call to a library function written if there are no arguments? 34. How is specific information that may be required by the library functions stored? How is this information entered into a C program? 35. In what general category do the #define and #include statements fall? INTRODUCTION C supports a rich set of operators. We have already used several of them, such as =, +. -, *, and, C operators can be classified into a number of categories. They include: 1. Arithmetic operators. 2. Relational operators. 3. Logical operators. 4. Assignment operators. 5. Incrementand decrement operators. 6. Conditional operators. 7. Bitwiseoperators. 8. Speciaolperators. 3.2 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS C provides all the basic arithmetic operators. They are listed in Table 3.1. The operators +, -, * and I all work the same way as they do in other languages. These can operate on any built-in data type allowed in C. The unary minus operator, in effect, multiplies its single operand by -1. Therefore, a number preceded by a minus sign changes its sign. Table 3.1 Arithmetic Operators Operator Meaning + Addition or unary plus Subtraction or unary minus * Multiplication / Division % Modulo division Integer division truncates any fractional part. The modulo division produces the remainder of an integer division. Examples of arithmetic operators are: a – b a + b a * b a / b a % b -a * b Here a and b are variables and are known as operands. The modulo division operator % cannot be used on floating point data. Note that C does not have an operator for exponentiation. Older versions of C does not support unary plus but ANSI C supports it. Integer Arithmetic When both the operands in a single arithmetic expression such as a+b are integers, the expression is called an integer expression, and the operation is called integer arithmetic. Integer arithmetical ways yields an integer value. The largest integer value depends on the machine, as pointed out earlier. In the above examples, if a and b are integers, then for a = 14 and b = 4 we have the following results: a b = 10 a + b = 18 a*b=56 a / b = 3 (decimal part truncated) a % b = 2 (remainder of division) During integer division, if both the operands are of the same sign, the result is truncated towards zero. If one of them is negative, the direction of truncation is implementation dependent. That is, 6/7 = 0 and -6/-7 = 0 but -6/7 may be zero or -1. (Machine dependent) Similarly, during modulo division, the sign of the result is always the sign of the first operand (the dividend.) That is -14 % 3 = -2 -14 % -3 = -2 14 % -3 = 2 EXAMPLE 3.1 Real Arithmetic An arithmetic operation involving only real operands is called eal arithmetic. A real operand may assume values either in decimal or exponential notation. Since floating point values are rou

Financial Markets and the Risks They Run :: Financial Markets Institutions Finances Essays

Financial Markets and the Risks They Run Outline the differences between a broker and a dealer (or marketmaker) in financial markets, including discussions of how they are remunerated and what risks they run. A financial market consists of diverse financial assets traded between buyers and sellers. In addition to enabling exchange of previously issued financial assets, financial markets make possible the borrowing and lending by facilitating the sale by newly issued financial assets. Examples of financial markets include the New York Stock Exchange (which is involved in the resale of previously issued stock shares), the U.S. government bond market (which is involved in the resale of previously issued bonds), and the U.S. Treasury bills auction (sales of newly issued T-bills). A financial institution is an organization whose primary source of profits is through financial asset transactions. Examples of such financial institutions include discount brokers, banks, insurance companies, and complex multi-function financial institutions such as Merrill Lynch. Financial institutions participate in financial markets by creating and/or exchange of financial assets. In the financial market there are four institutions that carry out in this type of trade. One of which is a broker which is a commissioned agent of a buyer/seller who facilitates trade by locating a seller/buyer to complete the desired transaction. A broker does not take a position in the assets he or she trades; there is no maintaining of inventories in these assets on behalf of the broker. The commissions they charge to the users of their services determine the profits of brokers. Examples of brokers include real estate brokers and stockbrokers. Dealers, like brokers, facilitate trade by matching buyers with sellers of assets; they do not engage in asset transformation. Unlike brokers, however, a dealer can and does "take positions" (i.e., maintain inventories) in the assets he or she trades that permit the dealer to sell out of inventory rather than always having to locate sellers to match every offer to buy. Also, unlike brokers, dealers do not receive sales commissions.

Descartes Skeptical Argument And Reponses By Bouwsma And Malcolm Essay

Descartes' Skeptical Argument and Reponses by Bouwsma and Malcolm In this essay, I will examine Rene Descartes' skeptical argument and responses by O.K. Bouwsma and Norman Malcolm. I intend to prove that while both Bouwsma and Malcolm make points that refute specific parts of Descartes' argument in their criticisms, neither is sufficient in itself to refute the whole. In order to understand Descartes' argument and its sometimes radical ideas, one must have at least a general idea of his motives in undertaking the argument. The seventeenth century was a time of great scientific progress, and the blossoming scientific community was concerned with setting up a consistent standard to define what constituted science. Their science was based on conjunction and empirical affirmation, ideally without any preconceived notions to taint the results. Descartes, however, believed that the senses were unreliable and that science based solely on information gained from the senses was uncertain. He was concerned with finding a point of certainty on which to base scientific thought. Eventually he settled on mathematics as a basis for science, because he believed mathematics and geometry to be based on some inherent truths. He believed that it was through mathematics that we were able to make sense of our world, and that the ability to think mathematically was an innate ability of all human beings. This theory becomes important in Descartes' Meditations because he is forced to explain where the mathematical ideas that he believed we were born with came from. Having discussed Descartes' background, I will now explain the specifics of his argument. The basis of Descartes' entire argument is that the senses can not be trusted, and his objective is to reach a point of certainty, one undeniable truth that fixes our existence. He said it best in his own words, "I will . . . apply myself earnestly and openly to the general destruction of my former opinions."1 By opinions he meant all the facts and notions about the world which he had previously held as truths. Any point which had even the slightest hint of doubt was discarded and considered completely false. Descartes decided that he would consider all things until he found that either nothing is certain, which is itself a point of certainty, or he reached the one undeniable truth he was searching for. In order to accom... ...admirable case for the validity of the senses, but upon careful examination he says very much the same thing as Bouwsma. Namely, that the senses are real to us. Bouwsma came to this point by examining the idea of the evil genius and the idea of "illusions". Malcolm came to it through examining the differences between fact, belief and sensory information. Despite the differences in how they discovered it, they both came to the same conclusion. The point is valid and their reasoning is sound, but it does not prove that Descartes is wrong. The strength of the skeptical argument lies in the fact that it can not be completely disproved. No one can prove or disprove the existence of an evil genius, they can only go so far as to say that it does not matter. This is essentially what Bouwsma and Malcolm have done. They tried to prove that the existence of the evil genius would not make a difference in our lives. For this reason, I believe that although Bouwsma and Malcolm have made a valid point, they have only touched the surface of Descartes' argument. They have succeeded in proving that life is not meaningless, but that was not the purpose of Descartes' argument to begin with.

Social environment

This is an example of a business changing to meet the needs of customers. Subways are trying to be more socially responsible by stunning their animals first, to appease consumers with strong moral objections. This Is Important because a study by Forbes showed that 65% of workers would seriously consider leaving their Jobs if they worked for a company that harmed the environment. Research has shown that over 88% of consumers think companies should try to achieve their business goals while Improving society and the environment.So therefore Subways diverse workforce may provide ideas that a more homogeneous workforce could miss. Also, they might eve a greater understanding of markets that may be segmented on these factors. They may also provide more natural links to market opportunities abroad, through linguistic skills, cultural knowledge and knowledge of foreign markets. This can explain why Subway operates in 83 countries, with a rapid rise in sales in Germany, its second most valuab le Western European market.Income Income can affect business. A company's products usually appeal to certain income groups. People with lower incomes are more sensitive to price and may prefer purchasing discount products. Permeates are experiencing a change In market share because of the increase of people with lower incomes and less disposable income who are sensitive to price (elasticity of demand) and a shift in tastes and trends, with cheap foods becoming Increasingly In demand.This means that the demand for discount food stores Is Increasing. Tests; an example of a food store that is experiencing a decrease in market share because people cannot afford Tests foods and prefer bargain stores like Lid. Deco's market share over the last 12 weeks (from outhouse) compared to a year ago Is down from 29. 6% to 28. %. Tests have responded to the threat with ‘hard discounters' by launching a poorly war on milk and other essentials. Tests has cut the price of pant milk to El to matc h budget chains.People are more aware of the importance of the environment and becoming ‘green consumers'; prefer environmentally-friendly goods which have less Impact on the environment e. G. Prefer to travel by bus. Cutbacks; expanding their recycling programmer to reduce waste developing more environmentally-friendly cups, evaluating store design and operations to identify ways to reduce the amount of water used, use responsible alluding materials and energy efficient designs for their stores The changing nature of the ethical environment Moral principles that should underpin decision making.Ethical behavior involves actions and decisions that are seen to be morally correct Ethics are the set of moral values held by an individual or group. An organization may make decision that it believes to be morally right, rather than one that suits the needs of some of its stakeholders. Thus a decision made on ethical grounds might reject the most profitable solution for an organizatio n in favor of one of greater infinite to society.Possible ethical stances Organizations may take different stances in relation to ethics, including: Viewing shareholders' or owners' short term interests as their only responsibility Recognizing that well managed relationships with other stakeholders bring long term benefits to shareholders or owners Including the interested and expectations of stakeholders in their mission Taking an ideological approach and placing financial considerations secondary Ethical Codes An instruction from an organization to its employees to indicate how they should exact to situations relating to moral values The focus of the code will depend on the business concerned. A typical code may include sections on Personal integrity in dealing with suppliers and in handling the firm's resources Corporate integrity such as forbidding collusion with competitors and predatory pricing Social responsibility Critics believe there is nothing more than public relations e xercises Ethical Investment Stock market investment based on a restricted list of firms that are ethically sound Ethical investors do not invest in firms thatFinance weapons deals to oppressive governments Make products involving tobacco, fur, animal testing and exploitative farming Do not act responsibly towards the environment or are not good employers Advantages/Disadvantages with Ethical Behavior Reviewing a firms ethical position A number of elements should be considered when reviewing a company's ethical position. Individuals Each person has their own set of personal standards derived from their upbringing, educations and background. As they make decisions, their own ideas of what is right and wrong is involved Corporate culture Set of unwritten rules that affect the attitudes and management style of a business. This can affect how employees behave in order to do well at the business Public standards Operate in an environment that affect everything they do and the results they achieve. A public outcry against a particular type of activity will force a business to look at itself and decide if it needs to change.It may also mean other businesses look at themselves as well Competitors A USPS can be built based on emphasizing their ethical stance. Other businesses may then review their operations Ethics, Business Culture and Delegation Organizations have cultures and codes of behavior that affect attitudes, decision making and management style. If there is conflict between the ethical position of the organization and the moral values of the individuals it employs, then delegated decision making may not reflect the ethical position of the organization. The potential of this problem can be minimized if the culture is one which all employees understand and take responsibility for.Changing business cultures is not easy and investment in effective training and communication is important to ensure that all Taft behave in an agreed ethical manner. Creating an ethic al culture within a business can actually improve motivation and can become part of a wider policy of employee empowerment. The duties of an organization towards employees, customers, society and the environment Benefits to Society Problems such as unemployment and pollution are likely to be reduced Quality of life is likely to be improved Society longer term needs are likely to be considered rather than simply the short term needs of a business Life and business activity will be easier if everyone involved s working together for the common good Simply the right thing to do.Firms have a duty to be concerned with the wider impact of their activities Benefits to Firms Improved financial performance Reduced operating costs due to greater recycling Enhanced brand image and reputation which could bring in more customers, trading partners and makes it easier to attract capital investment Increased sales and customer loyalty Increased ability to attract and retain employees Access to capit al Arguments against CARS Efficient use or resources is likely to be reduced if business are restricted by how hey can produce and where they can locate which could lead to higher costs and prices Socially responsible policies can be costly to introduce Stakeholders tend to have differing objectives and are therefore unlikely to agree on what is socially responsible behavior Social responsibility may be Just a passing fashion and nobody can be sure of the value of firms being socially responsible During a recession the objectives are profit and survival – social responsibility doesn't matter here If something is important to society at large it can be argued that the overspent should pass laws to ensure everybody acts responsibly Just an extension of a firm being market orientated, meaning its only done as the customer wants it Overall, in the long term, CARS could benefit businesses, as the local community may improve in terms of wealth, quality of life and standard of livin g, meaning the firm could also benefit. Most large firms will produce an ethical code of practice. This will uphold the firms social responsibilities. This might include being environmentally-friendly wherever possible. Cutbacks CARS; giving back to the environment Environmental mission statement;Understanding environmental issues and sharing these with staff Striving to buy, sell and use environmentally-friendly products Recognize that fiscal responsibility is essential to our environment future Installing environmental responsibility at a corporate value Example; serve high quality coffee that is ethically traded and responsibly grown. They do this through forest conservation efforts and farmer Why be ethical Marketing opportunities: A good reputation in relation to environmental issues can act as a positive marketing tool that encourages customers to choose one brand over another. They can also build a loyal customer base through USPS. Financial opportunities: Can actually make i t easier to get money off certain banks – banks like Cooperative will not lend money to firms with a reputation for damaging the environment. Lower costs through recycling and less waste.Human resources opportunities: Motivation, attract the best workers who want to work for a company with high standards. Poor reputation can damage reputation and the ability to attract high quality applicants Why not be ethical; More expensive to source raw materials, more expensive capital goods to cut pollution, Training workers to be ethical costs money, losing custom from more ruthless competitors Ethics or Public Relations? Public Relations – Activities to boost the public profiles of an organization Public relations usually involves obtaining favorable publicity via the press, television or radio. Unlike advertising, it is not paid for and there is no control over its content.When a business behaves ethically it may be good for PR. It has been suggested that the good PR is the ma in reason for ethical behavior – it can help enhance the image of a business and is likely to generate more goodwill. This in turn will lead to improved sales and may eventually boost the company's share value. Example; Foxing (public relations)(benefits of not being ethical) Criticized for polluting nearby rivers with factory chemicals, black-green water dumped twice a day. Foxing said it is complying with emission standards and bring the factories into full compliance with policies and that other companies within the same industrial park are dumping water into the rivers too.This shows they are stating that their complying with emission standards for public relations because really they onto want to lose their competitive advantage from more ruthless competitors; doing it to save costs, generate profitability quick, keep costs low, keep up with demand etc†¦ More evidence that they care more about public relations is that they installed solving underlying problem of sui cide so the social responsibility doesn't reflect genuine values, don't care about their staff, only care about deadlines and money. Example Primary: (genuine values) The roof of their factory in Bangladesh collapsed, killing more than 1000 people.Long-term compensation and support services for the errors and families who were working in the factory payments end this month ($mm) = High cash outflows so less revenue. They also had building surveys to assess the structural integrity of factories which means they are addressing the underlying problem. However this may not actually affect Primary, this may be cheaper in the long term than paying their staff higher wages; a significant variable cost. This shows that corporate social responsibility is Just a form of public relations and a way to back their reputation and offer a method to ‘shut them up'. Could be because of public relations?

Punished by Rewards Essay

The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praise, and Other Bribes (1993), contends that rewards and punishments are â€Å"two sides of the same coin† (p. 50). Although rewards are certainly more pleasurable, they are â€Å"every bit as controlling as punishments, even if they control by seduction† (p. 51). According to Kohn, if we want youngsters to become self-regulating, responsible, caring individuals, we must abandon attempts at external control and provide students with opportunities to develop competence, connection, and autonomy in caring classroom communities† One of the most important parts of being an effective teacher is motivation of the children you are teaching. When I was learning have to be an effective teacher in my methods classes, many of the techniques that I was taught included extrinsic motivation. When I began my student teaching I watched techniques my cooperating teacher used to motivation and noticed she did not use any of the techniques I had learned in my classes. I found myself confused about how I would handle the matter of motivation when it came time for me to take control of the class on my own. I used candy and a treasure chest for rewards, but found that I only received motivation for a short time in return for these rewards. I knew that I would have to do more research and construct a new plan to motivate my student’s long term. I did some research and found that, extrinsic motivation refers to an individual’s involvement in an activity because an incentive or reward external to the activity has been offered. An extrinsically motivated child will choose to read a book or complete homework because they will get stickers when they have finished or not be allowed to watch TV if they do not finish. Another frequently used tactic to motivate children is threating to call the parent or some other authority figure if they do not get their work done. Another form of motivation is intrinsic motivation, this involves knowing that a person does what they do, not because someone else wants them to do it, or because I believe someone will respect or like me for doing it. What they do satisfies them regardless of what others may think. This true form of motivation reflects the genuine inclinations and feelings of the child, not the values or expectations of teachers or parents (Dr. Gabor Mate, 1999). Although the motivation literatures point out that intrinsic motivation is critical to student learning, the U. S. education system is organized and ran in a way that supports and promotes extrinsic motivation. Many parents and teachers believe that the external rewards such as money for good grades and bribes are the best way to motivate children. These well-intentioned, quick fix approaches to motivate send the message that there should be a tangible reward for doing schoolwork or behaving correctly. These techniques may work short-term, but long-term they will weaken the development of intrinsic motivation. Internal and external motivation does not necessarily reinforce one another. Extrinsic rewards can interfere with intrinsic motivation by turning an intrinsically attractive activity, such as reading for pleasure, into a means to an external goal, such as getting a pizza (Deci, 1995). Researchers studying motivation (Deci 1990; Ryan 1985; Nicholls 1983) generally agree on three points. First, motivation is an inherent natural capacity to learn that need to be elicited from within an individual rather than established form outside an individual. Second, teachers and parents must become aware that the long-term earning is to promote the development of motivation that arises for the child’s own nature and inclinations. Third, children must be intrinsically motivated to become self-regulated, independent, lifelong learners. One hypothesis that tested internal and external modification is the overjustofocation effect. The overjustification effect states that how individuals will feel toward performing certain tasks is determined by whether they are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to perform the task (Deci, 1971). Using the self-perception theory’s prediction that when extrinsic motivations are present they will take precedent over intrinsic motivations, the overjustification effect reveals the importance of motivation on performance (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett). In 1971, Deci suggested that in a situation where an individual was to receive a reward for an activity, and knew about the reward prior to participating in said activity, then the individual would attribute his or her behavior to the reward instead of the activity itself. Deci’s theory led to the hypothesis that once an activity is associated with the external reward; a person will be less inclined to participate in the activity in the future without a reward present. Two years after Deci’s study, a group of researchers again tested the overjustification hypothesis in a field experiment. Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) went to a nursery school and observed children’s intrinsic interest in various activities to confirm Deci’s theory. The children were then put into one of three conditions for the experiment. In the first condition, known as the â€Å"expected-award condition,† children were told they would receive a reward (a certificate with a seal and a ribbon) for partaking in the activity that they were previously doing out of pure intrinsic interest. †¢ In the second condition, the â€Å"unexpected-award condition,† the children were not told of the reward until after they finished the activity. †¢ In the third condition, also called the â€Å"no-reward condition,† the researchers did not tell or give the children any reward. This group thus served as the control group, since extrinsic rewards were not involved either before or after performance. The extrinsic reward phase ended with the researchers giving the children the certificates based on their condition group. In the following phase, the researchers let the children go about their activities, but this time without offering or giving any rewards. In accordance with the overjustification hypothesis, the children in the â€Å"expected-reward condition† had become less interested in their activities since the introduction of the extrinsic motivation. However, there was no change in the interest of the group who received the reward unexpectedly. This is because the children in this condition did not know about the reward until after the activity, and therefore attributed their behavior to an enjoyment of the activity. Similarly, those who did not expect or receive a reward had no extrinsic motivation, and showed no decline in interest as a result. Based off of the research I did and examples I found, I plan to base the motivation I provide to my students on intrinsic techniques and rewards. I will do everything I can to help to develop the children’s intrinsic motivation, so they can gain the tools needed to motivate themselves internally. This will be a skill, once mastered that will continue to benefit them and assist them to become successful in all aspects of their lives.